#380: Frogs and Philosophy

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RACHEL'S HAZARDOUS WASTE NEWS #380
---March 10, 1994---
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The decline of frog populations world-wide has stirred dispute in the media. Like other environmental problems beset with uncertainties, the simultaneous disappearance of frog populations from every continent offers the media a vehicle for venting philosophical views, environmental and anti-environmental. (Just as the anti-environmentalists now have their own funders, they also have their own favorite media and writers.)

The NEW YORK TIMES pins frog loss on ozone depletion and resultant increases in ultraviolet sunlight striking the Earth. [1] At the other end of the philosophical spectrum, Boyce Rensberger, an anti-environmentalists' favorite with the WASHINGTON POST, suggests that environmentalists caused the frog loss when they forced government to ban a pesticide that formerly controlled a fungus that is now running rampant worldwide, killing off frog populations. [2]

The ozone layer in the stratosphere--6 to 30 miles above the earth's surface--filters out deadly ultraviolet radiation from the sun. Many chemicals, but chiefly DuPont's chlorofluorocarbons, diminish Earth's ozone shield, allowing increased ultraviolet light to strike the Earth. The TIMES reported studies showing that ultraviolet light is increasing on parts of the Earth and that reproduction of some frogs and toads is diminished by exposure to ultraviolet light. Rensberger responded with a theory of his own.

For some time now, Rensberger and the WASHINGTON POST have been selling the idea that ozone depletion, although real, has never harmed anyone or anything and is getting better all the time. Rensberger puts his name on stories carrying headlines such as "After 2000, Outlook for the Ozone Layer Looks Good" and "Decline of Ozone-Harming Chemicals Suggests Atmosphere May Heal Itself." [3] And he writes things like, "In fact, researchers say, the problem [of ozone loss] appears to be heading toward solution before they can find any solid evidence that serious harm was or is being done." Blaming frog loss on ozone appears to ruffle Rensberger's philosophical feathers.

Rensberger's theory that the ozone layer will fix itself before anyone or anything is hurt is more wishful thinking than science reporting. Rensberger himself says that the ozone "holes" over the North and South poles will not go away until the year 2050 at the earliest. Even this prediction is optimistic because it assumes worldwide compliance with the Montreal Protocol, a 1987 international agreement to stop using DuPont's ozone-destroying chlorofluorocarbons in cooling systems. A few countries, such as China, India, Indonesia, and those of the former Soviet Union --representing 47% of the world's population --have said they can't afford to comply with the Protocols. Whether they will or not remains to be seen.

Even if everyone phases out chlorofluorocarbons right on schedule, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) is sticking with its April, 1991, estimate of the skin cancers that ozone loss will cause. During the next 50 years, EPA says, ozone loss will cause 12 million skin cancers in the U.S. and 200,000 deaths. 

Worldwide, a billion (a thousand million) skin cancers are expected to result from ozone loss, including 17 million deaths, over the next 50 years.

Rensberger's new theory on frog loss seems philosophically consistent with the anti-environmental perspective, but more than a little implausible all the same. HOMO SAPIENS --modern humans --have been on Earth for 60,000 years. [4] Most chemical pesticides have been around for 50 years or less. Frogs have successfully inhabited the Earth for at least 200 million years. [5] Rensberger's theory, that during the past two decades frogs somehow became dependent on human pesticides for their survival, is --to put it politely --pretty silly.

The scientific concern about frog disappearances emerged during the First World Congress of Herpetology at Cambridge, England in 1989. Herpetology is the study of reptiles (snakes, lizards, turtles) and amphibians (salamanders, toads and frogs).

At the Congress, in the hallways and during coffee breaks, scientists compared notes and realized that in Colorado and Costa Rica, in Australia and Africa, frogs are disappearing. Whole species being studied in the '60s and '70s simply disappeared during the '80s.

The International Union for the Conservation of Nature (IUCN) by 1991 organized a Declining Amphibian Populations Task Force (DAPTF), located at Oregon State University in Corvallis. Late last year the Task Force published, THE STATUS OF AMPHIBIAN POPULATIONS; A COMPILATION AND ANALYSIS. This authoritative report leaves little doubt that amphibians--particularly frogs--are disappearing from locations all over the globe, though the full dimensions of the problem of course remain sketchy.

What's responsible for the declines? 

Journalists like simple answers and perhaps scientists do too. But there seem to be multiple complex causes for the loss of amphibians worldwide. The DAPTF lists the following:

1) "The overwhelmingly reported cause of declines is habitat destruction, disturbance and fragmentation," says the DAPTF status report. In other words, condominiums, parking lots, and shopping malls are the culprit reported most often. Humans are wrecking wildlife habitat in a frenzy of what the anti-environmental movement calls "development."

2) A close second is pollution --pesticides, acid rain, and other chemical contamination.

3) Third is the introduction of non-native species of predatory fish, which disturb the ecological balance of lakes and streams.

4) Drought and flood --both of which seem to be increasing, worldwide, perhaps in response to global warming (see RHWN #300 AND #301) 
--are taking their toll on amphibian populations.

5) Eutrophication of ponds (excessive growth of plants, which depletes oxygen in the water) caused by the modern farming practice of over-fertilizing, contributes.

In the last three years, two new causes, perhaps related, have been suggested.

6) The immune systems of some populations of frogs and toads have somehow been damaged, perhaps by chemical contaminants, perhaps in combination with extremes of weather and temperature. [6] Animals with damaged immune systems may fall prey to bacteria and viruses that they might otherwise withstand.

7) And most recently Robert Stebbins, emeritus professor of zoology at University of California at Berkeley, has suggested that amphibian population declines may be caused by environmental pollutants that mimic estrogens and disrupt the endocrine and immune systems of amphibians. Stebbins presented his views in a paper at the Second World Congress of Herpetology in Adelaide, Australia in January and they will appear again in this month's issue of FROGLOG, the journal of the DAPTF in Corvallis. [7] Stebbins will examine his hypothesis further in a chapter of his new book, A NATURAL HISTORY OF AMPHIBIANS, to be published this year by Princeton University Press, he said in an interview. He wonders aloud whether frogs aren't particularly susceptible to damage by hormone-mimicking, endocrine-disrupting chemicals for some or all of the following reasons:

1) Most or all hormone-mimicking chemicals are soluble in fat;

2) Frogs absorb environmental chemicals through their highly permeable skin, as well as via digestion;

3) The change from tadpole to frog may release toxins that have been stored in fat;

4) When emerging from hibernation to breed, amphibians draw heavily on fat reserves, which may release fat-stored toxins;

5) Females draw upon fat reserves to create the yolk of their eggs, perhaps again releasing fat-stored toxins into their systems.

6) The dramatic physical change from tadpole to frog is hormone-driven and thus could be susceptible to interference by environmental pollutants (xenoestrogens, or xenobiotics) that mimic hormones.

7) During the change from tadpole to frog, the creature stops eating, stressing its whole system.

Of course no one knows what's really going on in nature. Scientists produce fragments of information, then try to see patterns among the fragments. What patterns a reporter sees depends upon where he or she stands on one basic question that separates environmentalists from anti-environmentalists: can humans continue to rearrange and contaminate ecosystems everywhere without ultimately destroying the ability of the Earth to support human life? Those with an abiding faith might answer, "Humans are not threatening anything serious. Even if frogs ARE disappearing, we'll simply learn to live without them. All is well."

Environmentalists, on the other hand, are likely to stand with biologist Rachel Carson who in SILENT SPRING (1962) wrote,

"...[T]he new chemicals come from laboratories in an endless stream; almost 500 annually find their way into actual use in the United States alone. The figure is staggering and its implications are not easily grasped --500 new chemicals to which the bodies of men and animals are required somehow to adapt each year, chemicals totally outside the limits of biologic experience.

"These sprays, dusts, and aerosols are now applied almost universally to farms, gardens, forests and homes. Can anyone believe it is possible to lay down such a barrage of poisons on the surface of the earth without making it unfit for all life?"

--Peter Montague, Ph.D.

===============

[1] Carol Kaesuk Yoon, "Thinning Ozone Layer Implicated in Decline of Frogs and Toads," NEW YORK TIMES March 1, 1994, pg. C4, citing J.B Kerr and C.T. McElroy, "Evidence for Large Upward Trends of Ultraviolet-B radiation Linked to Ozone Depletion," SCIENCE Vol. 262 (November 12, 1993), pgs. 1032-1034. See also Mario Blumthaler and Walter Ambach, "Indication of Increasing Solar Ultraviolet-B Radiation Flux in Alpine Regions," SCIENCE Vol. 248 (April 13, 1990), pgs. 206-208.

[2] Boyce Rensberger, "Sunlight and Fungus As Amphibian Hazards," WASHINGTON POST March 7, 1994, pg. A3.

[3] Boyce Rensberger, "After 2000, Outlook for the Ozone Layer Looks Good," WASHINGTON POST April 15, 1993, pg. A1. And: Boyce Rensberger, "Decline of Ozone-Harming Chemicals Suggests Atmosphere May Heal Itself," WASHINGTON POST Aug. 26, 1993, pg. A10.

[4] Bernard G. Campbell, HUMANKIND EMERGING. SIXTH EDITION. (New York: HarperCollins, 1992), pg. 438.

[5] Emily Yoffe, "Silence of the Frogs," NEW YORK TIMES MAGAZINE December 13, 1992, pgs. 36-38, 64, 66, 76.

[6] C. Carey, "Hypothesis Concerning the Disappearance of Boreal Toads from the Mountains of Colorado," CONSERVATION BIOLOGY Vol. 7 No. 2 (1993), pgs. 355-362.

[7] Loralei Saylor, "The Endocrine Connection," FROGLOG No. 9 (March, 1994). FROGLOG is published by the Declining Amphibian Populations Task Force of the The International Union for the Conservation of Nature (IUCN) at 200 S.W. 35th Street, Corvallis, Oregon 97333; telephone (503) 754-4578.

Descriptor terms: anti-environmental movement; wise use; frogs; amphibians; toads; pesticides; fungi; fish; species loss; ozone depletion; ultraviolet light; solar radiation; Washington post; international union for the conservation of nature; iucn; declining amphibian populations task force; daptf; robert stebbins; boyce rensberger; immune disorders; endocrine disruptors; hormones; estrogens; estrogen; fat; reproductive health; reproduction; rachel carson; silent spring;

#417: Big-Picture Organizing--Part 1: Some Good News amid the Bad

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RACHEL'S ENVIRONMENT & HEALTH WEEKLY #417
---November 24, 1994---
News and resources for environmental justice.
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First the Good News

Since 1975, grass-roots action at the local level has brought important successes. It was grass-roots action that killed the civilian nuclear power industry in the U.S., principally by making radioactive waste disposal difficult and therefore expensive, and by turning every nuclear power plant into a fight and therefore into a public relations nightmare for its electric-utility owner.

Grass-roots action at the local level crippled the municipal solid waste incinerator industry. Since 1985, 70 incinerators were built, but during the same period at least 280 incinerators were killed. [1]The municipal incinerator industry is on the ropes.

Grass-roots action killed expansion of the industry that buries hazardous wastes in shallow pits in the ground. Since BFI opened the appropriately-named "Last Chance" dump in Colorado in 1991, no new hazardous waste dumps have even been proposed. (After getting a license for its "Last Chance" dump, BFI abandoned the hazardous waste dump business entirely.)

Most importantly, grass-roots action forced the International Joint Commission (IJC) to recommend an entirely new philosophy of chemical regulation --one that assumes chemicals are harmful until proven safe, and one based on the principle of precautionary action. The precautionary principle says that, to avoid irreparable harm to the environment and to human health, wherever it is acknowledged that a practice (or substance) could cause harm, even without conclusive scientific proof that it has caused harm or does cause harm, the practice (or emissions of the substance) should be prevented and eliminated. (U.S. Environmental Protection Agency in 1994 rejected the IJC's recommendations, but the handwriting is on the wall now, officially.) [2]

And Now the Bad

Despite these important successes, chemicals released into the environment are still decimating wildlife, making people sick, and killing people. In this sense, despite thousands of successes in local battles, grass-roots activists are losing the war.

Consider these facts:

** The incidence rates for 5 kinds of cancers are decreasing, but the incidence rates for 19 kinds of cancer are steadily increasing. The death rates for 12 kinds of cancer are dropping, but the deaths rates for 12 other cancers continue to rise. [3] Among the fastest-growing is breast cancer. In 1960, a woman's chance of getting breast cancer was 1 in 20; today it is 1 in 9, moving toward 1 in 8.

** Increasingly, couples in their prime child-bearing years are sterile; this may be due in part to a 53% decline in sperm count that has been documented among men in all industrialized countries over the past 50 years, a decline that is apparently continuing. [4]

** Ectopic pregnancy rates have quadrupled in the last 20 years. [5] An ectopic pregnancy is one that occurs outside the uterus, in one of the fallopian tubes; if not treated, such a pregnancy is fatal to the mother. Even when treated properly, it can result in sterility.

** The prevalence of endometriosis (a painful disease of the tissues lining the uterus, which often results in sterility) is steadily increasing and now afflicts somewhere between 5 and 9 million American women; [6]

** Immune system disorders (such as asthma and diabetes) are increasing. In 1990 the JOURNAL OF THE AMERICAN MEDICAL ASSOCIATION (JAMA) observed that death rates from asthma have been increasing in the U.S., Canada, England, France, Denmark and Germany. [7] Other sources report increasing death rates from asthma in Wales and Australia. [8] In the U.S., the increase has been rapid. Asthma death rates increased 31% between 1980 and 1987 (from 1.3 per 100,000 population to 1.7 per 100,000). The biggest increase occurred among children between the ages of 5 and 15.

The prevalence of asthma is also increasing, especially among young children. Among children ages 6 to 11, the prevalence of asthma increased from 4.8% in 1971-74 to 7.6% in 1976-1980, a 58% increase in a short period. More recent studies indicate that the increases are continuing.

Another immune system disease, diabetes, is also increasing rapidly in the U.S. The prevalence of IDDM (insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus, also called Type I diabetes) doubled between 1964 and 1981. [9] A 1993 study says, "[W]e are undergoing an epidemic of IDDM with the rapid increase in the number of cases seen recently." [10]

** The prevalence of nervous system disorders (Lou Gehrig's disease, and Parkinson's disease) is increasing; [11]

** A new disease has emerged called "multiple chemical sensitivity," characterized by extreme sensitivity to low levels of various chemicals, sometimes including odors from new carpets, perfumes, and the fragrances in commercial products such as waxes and detergents. Paints and solvents can set off an allergic-type reaction. Symptoms of MCS range in severity from an itchy rash to coma. An estimated 10% to 15% of the U.S. population now suffers from this disease in one form or another, and the prevalence appears to be rising. [12]

** Birth defect rates are steadily increasing. The federal Centers for Disease Control in 1990 summarized the trends in 38 types of birth defects; they found 29 increasing, 2 decreasing, and 7 remaining unchanged. [13]

** Eight studies of air pollution in U.S. cities have now shown that fine particles (the invisible soot emitted by incinerators, automobiles, power plants and heating units) are presently killing about 60,000 Americans each year. [14] More than a dozen studies have, in one way or another, confirmed this relationship. Furthermore, there appears to be no threshold, no level below which effects disappear. This means that people are being killed by air pollution levels well within existing federal standards.

** In 1990, the American Public Health Association (APHA) estimated that each year 50,000 to 70,000 Americans die of diseases developed from toxic exposures on the job. Furthermore, APHA estimated that 350,000 new cases of occupational disease develop each year from toxic exposures. [15]

Good News Amid the Bad

It seems clear that the opportunity is ripe, and steadily growing, for a major political organizing campaign with health as the centerpiece. Everyone cares about their health and the health of their children. A health-centered organizing campaign offers a clear entryway into the much larger question, "What has gone wrong with America?" Addressing this question would require what we call "Big-Picture Organizing."

[To be continued.] #419

 --Peter Montague

===============

[1] Ellen Connett, "Since the 1980's a Minimum of 280 Proposals to Build Municipal Waste Incinerators in the U.S. Have Been Defeated or Abandoned," WASTE NOT #283 [from: Work On Waste, U.S.A., 82 Judson St., Canton, N.Y. 13617: phone 315/379-9200] (July 1994), pg. 1. The 280 figure is an underestimate; several incinerators have been defeated since July 1994, according to Ellen Connett, personal communication to Maria Pellerano November 22, 1994.

[2] See Peter Montague, "Our Greatest Accomplishment: Grass-roots Action has Forced a Major Shift in Thinking," THE WORKBOOK [from: Southwest Research and Information Center, P.O. Box 4524, Albuquerque, N.M. 87106; phone 505/ 262-1862.] Vol. 19, No. 2 (Summer 1994), pgs. 86-90.

[3] Incidence rate means occurrence of cancer per 100,000 population, age-adjusted; death rate means deaths from cancer per 100,000 population, age-adjusted. The 5 cancers with decreasing incidence are mouth and pharynx; uterus; stomach; cervix; and esophagus. The 18 cancers with increasing incidence are: colon/rectum; larynx; testicles; bladder; Hodgkin's; childhood cancers; leukemia; thyroid; liver; pancreas; ovaries; lung; skin; female breast; prostate; kidney; brain; non-Hodgkin's lymphoma; and multiple myeloma. Death rates are dropping for mouth and pharynx; uterus; stomach; cervix; colon/rectum; larynx; testicles; bladder; Hodgkin's; childhood cancers; leukemia; and thyroid. Death rates are increasing for esophagus; liver; pancreas; ovaries; lung; skin; female breast; prostate; kidney; brain; non-Hodgkin's lymphoma; and multiple myeloma. Source of information: Barry A. Miller and others, editors, CANCER STATISTICS REVIEW 1973-1990 [National Institutes of Health Publication No. 93-2789] (Bethesda, Md.: National Cancer Institute, 1993), Table I-3, pg. I.[27].

[4] Increasing infertility among Americans in their prime reproductive years is discussed in Appendix A, "Reproductive Dysfunction in the Population," pgs. 341-346, in Office of Technology Assessment, REPRODUCTIVE HEALTH HAZARDS IN THE WORKPLACE [OTA-BA-266] (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, December, 1985).

[5] Increases in ectopic pregnancies are documented in MMWR [Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report] CDC SURVEILLANCE SUMMARIES Vol. 39 No. SS-4 (December, 1990), pgs. 9-19.

[6] David E. Larson, editor, MAYO CLINIC FAMILY HEALTH BOOK (N.Y.: William Morrow, 1990), pgs. 1101-1102. Sherry E. Rier and others, "Endometriosis in Rhesus Monkeys (Macaca mulatta) Following Chronic Exposure to 2,3,7,8-Tetrachlorodibenzo-P-dioxin," FUNDAMEN-TAL AND APPLIED TOXICOLOGY Vol. 21 (1993), pgs. 433-441.

[7] A. Sonia Buist and William M. Vollmer, "Reflections on the Rise in Asthma Morbidity and Mortality," JOURNAL OF THE AMERICAN MEDICAL ASSOCIATION October 3, 1990, pgs. 1719-1720. Kevin B. Weiss and Diana K. Wagener, "Changing Patterns of Asthma Mortality," JOURNAL OF THE AMERICAN MEDICAL ASSOCIATION Vol. 264 (1990), pgs. 1683-1687.

[8] Peter J. Gergen and others, "National Survey of the Prevalence of Asthma Among Children in the United States, 1976 to 1980," PEDIATRICS Vol. 81 (1988), pgs. 1-7.

[9] National Diabetes Data Group, DIABETES IN AMERICA [NIH Publication No. 85-1468] (no place of publication [Bethesda, Md.?]: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Public Health Service, National Institutes of Health, National Institute of Arthritis, Diabetes, and Digestive and Kidney Diseases, August 1985), Table 2, pgs. VI-4, VI-5.

[10] Ingrid Libman and others, "How Many People in the U.S. Have IDDM [insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus]?" DIABETES CARE Vol. 16, No. 5 [May 1993], pgs. 841-842.

[11] Increases in Parkinson's disease and in amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS, or Lou Gehrig's disease) are documented in Office of Technology Assessment, NEUROTOXICITY; IDENTIFYING AND CONTROLLING POISONS OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM [OTA-BA-436] (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, April, 1990); see Figures 2-2 and 2-3 on pg. 55.

[12] See Board on Environmental Studies and Toxicology, National Research Council, MULTIPLE CHEMICAL SENSITIVITIES (Washington, D.C.: National Academy Press, 1992). Multiple chemical sensitivity afflicts 10% to 15% of the American public, and appears to be increasing, says Bette Hileman, "Multiple Chemical Sensitivity," C&EN [Chemical & Engineering News] Vol. 69 No. 29 (July 22, 1991), pg. 34. This emerging disease has been subject of two excellent book-length studies: In 1990 the New Jersey Department of Health published a report by Nicholas Ashford and Claudia Miller, CHEMICAL SENSITIVITY, which is distributed by National Center for Environmental Health Strategies (NCEHS), 1100 Rural Ave., Voorhees, NJ 08043; phone (609) 429-5358. $17.00. See also Nicholas Ashford and Claudia Miller, CHEMICAL EXPOSURES: LOW LEVELS AND HIGH STAKES (New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold, 1990).

[13] Larry D. Edmonds and others, "Temporal Trends in the Prevalence of Congenital Malformations at 
Birth Based on the Birth Defects Monitoring Program, United States, 1979-1987," MMWR [Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report] CDC SURVEILLANCE SUMMARIES Vol. 39, No. SS-4 (December 1990), pg. 22.

[14] Seven studies are reviewed by Joel Schwartz, "Particulate Air Pollution and Daily Mortality: A Synthesis," PUBLIC HEALTH REVIEWS 1991/1992 Vol. 19 (1992), pgs. 39-60. The 8th is Douglas Dockery and others, "An Association Between Air Pollution and Mortality in Six U.S. Cities," NEW ENGLAND JOURNAL OF MEDICINE Vol. 329 (1993), pgs. 1753-1759; see also pgs. 1807-1808. The 60,000 figure is taken from "Air Pollution in Typical U.S. Cities Increases Death Risk," press release dated May 13, 1991, from the Harvard School of Public Health, Boston, Mass. describing findings later reported in Joel Schwartz and Douglas W. Dockery, "Increased Mortality in Philadelphia Associated With Daily Air Pollution Concentrations," AMERICAN REVIEW OF RESPIRATORY DISEASE Vol. 145 (1992), pgs. 600-604. Two million deaths occur in the U.S. each year; according to Schwartz and Dockery, fine particles account for 3%.

[15] Philip J. Landrigan, "Commentary: Environmental Disease--A Preventable Epidemic," AMERICAN JOURNAL OF PUBLIC HEALTH Vol. 82 (July 1992), pgs. 941-943.

Descriptor terms: grass-roots citizen action; civilian nuclear power; municipal solid waste incineration; msw; landfilling; dumps; hazardous waste; ijc; regulation; reverse onus; burden of proof; precautionary principle; principle of precationary action; wildlife; human health; morbidity; mortality; studies; statistics; cancer; breast cancer; sterility; reproductive disorders; ectopic pregnancies; tubal pregnancies; endometriosis; immune system disorders; diabetes mellitus; type I diabetes; asthma; nervous system disorders; lou gehrig's disease; amyotrophic lateral sclerosis; parkinson's disease; multiple chemical sensitivity; mcs; birth defects; air pollution; fine particles; apha; american public health association; occupational safety and health;

#441: New Perspectives on Loss of Species

=======================Electronic Edition========================
RACHEL'S ENVIRONMENT & HEALTH WEEKLY #441
---May 11, 1995---
News and resources for environmental justice.
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Environmental Research Foundation
P.O. Box 5036, Annapolis, MD 21403
Fax (410) 263-8944; Internet: erf@rachel.clark.net
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New research on loss of species indicates that extinctions are occurring now at a rate 100 to 1000 times as fast as "natural background" rates of extinction. [1] The "natural background" is the rate of extinction measurable in the fossil record of life before humans appeared on the scene. In some regions, the rate today is 10,000 times as fast as the natural rate. Extinction is nothing new; it has been going on since life first emerged on Earth, perhaps 3 billion years ago. What is new is the speed with which extinctions are now occurring.

The most recent estimate of the "background" rate of extinctions indicates that one species is lost per year out of each 1 million to 10 million species in existence. (No one knows how many species exist. About 1.4 million species have been named and cataloged; Harvard biologist E.O. Wilson says his best guess is that somewhere between 5 and 30 million species exist.) [2]

A recent conservative (meaning on the low side; not exaggerated) estimate of the present rate of species loss suggests that we are losing one species per year for every 10,000 species on Earth. Thus the present extinction rate is 100 to 1000 times as fast as the historical "background" rate.

Extinctions are particularly important problems because they are permanent and cannot be reversed once they occur. When a species is lost, all of the genetic information that it contained is lost as well. If a species has valuable characteristics --like the bread mold that gave us penicillin --its loss is particularly important to humans. But, in a crucial way, all species are important. We do not know what holds the web of life together. It is as if we were flying in an airplane and periodically reaching down, pulling a component out of the control panel, and tossing it out the window. Anyone can see that such a plane will very likely not remain airborne. It is the same with biodiversity --the loss of component parts weakens the whole structure in ways that we cannot understand or appreciate. We just know that loss of species cannot be good for the system, or for us.

Why are we losing species so fast? A recent look at the loss of amphibians (frogs, toads, and salamanders) reveals many complex reasons. [3]

There are 5130 species of amphibians on Earth today. [4] Amphibians have been on the Earth for well over 100 million years --1000 times as long as HOMO SAPIENS has been around. [5] In other words, humans in their modern form have been on Earth only one-tenth of one-percent of the time that amphibians have been here. Amphibians managed to live through the stressful time when the dinosaurs went extinct, 65 million years ago. Clearly, amphibians are survivors.

Since about 1970, however, there has been accumulating evidence that amphibians are declining and disappearing in places as diverse as North America, Central and South America, Europe, Asia, Africa and Australia. [6]

The rate of amphibian extinctions has been estimated as follows: there are about 4000 species of frogs and toads; only 5 are thought to have become extinct between the 19th century and the 1960s. But in the past 25 years, herpetologists have observed drastic population declines and disappearances of many more species. They believe that 89 amphibian species are now at risk of extinction. [7] Other species have not been seen in recent years, but it is not known whether this is due to natural fluctuations of population or is a sign of trouble. [8]

Why has the rate of amphibian extinctions increased so rapidly this century and especially within the last 30 years? Specialists writing in SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN and elsewhere list the following reasons: [9]

1) Amphibians are born of eggs laid in water, eggs not protected by a leathery or hard shell. Thus amphibians start "sampling" the environment as soon as life begins.

2) During early life (egg and larval stages), they live in the water; during later stages, they live partly in water and partly on land. Thus they "sample" a spectrum of environments as their lives progress.

3) Amphibians have a permeable, exposed skin, not covered by thick scales, hair or feathers. They breathe (respire) through their thin, moist skin, again "sampling" the environment and whatever pollutants it may contain. Because they are "cold blooded" (having no internal thermostat), they move in and out of sunlight to avoid extremes of heat and cold.

4) Habitat loss: The U.S. originally contained between 148 and 185 million acres of wetlands; during the 1950s to 1970s, about 10% of these wetlands were drained. Currently an estimated 107 million acres, or between 58% and 72% of the nation's original wetlands, remain in the continental U.S. Nearly 300,000 acres of wetlands are lost per year. [10] Amphibians depend upon wetlands for life. [Solution: protect wetlands.]

5) Habitat fragmentation. Amphibians live in local colonies. When one colony's habitat is damaged, it might migrate to a new location if conditions are right. But habitats have been fragmented --cut up by human developments --so that migration to new habitat is made difficult or impossible. [Solution: Stop building new roads. Stop clearcutting forests. Learn to live within reasonable limits. Plan our land uses on the assumption that other species have a right to exist and that humans are diminished when other species decline.]

6) Introduction of exotic species for recreational fishing. Exotic species may outcompete indigenous species for food and breeding sites or may prey upon the indigenous species. In the U.S., introduced species such as rainbow trout, golden trout, brook charr, and largemouth bass eat eggs, larvae and adult amphibians. [Solution: minimize introduction of exotic species. The stocking of rivers and lakes with hatchery-bred fish gives the false impression that all is well, so we could give ourselves a much-needed reality check by abandoning this practice. Amphibian declines offer a second good reason to abandon this practice.]

7) Global climate change. Normally, the Earth's ozone shield filters out the sun's deadly ultraviolet radiation. In the last 30 years, humans have depleted the ozone shield by chemical contamination, thus increasing the amount of ultraviolet radiation striking the surface of the Earth. Field experiments by biologists in Oregon showed that the eggs of certain species of amphibians are killed by increased exposure to ultraviolet light. They concluded, "Clearly, amphibian eggs in wild populations were dying from exposure to ultraviolet-B radiation." [11][Solution: aggressively ban all ozone depleters including CFCs, HCFCs and methyl bromide, and attempt to shut down the black market in such products.]

8) These same scientists note that certain bacteria and fungi have been known to decimate amphibian populations. One particular fungus is carried by fish raised in hatcheries; when the fish are released, the fungus may harm local amphibian populations. [12] These scientists speculate that, because ultraviolet light is known to harm the immune system of many animals, ozone depletion may be harming the immune systems of amphibians, diminishing their defenses against bacteria and fungi. [Solution: see No. 7, above.]

9) Acid rain, snow, and fog: acidity itself seems to harm growth and development of amphibians; it also releases aluminum from the soil which then harms growth and development of amphibians. [13] [Solution: phase out coal-burning power plants and replace them with solar-hydrogen systems.]

10) Agricultural contaminants: In the western U.S., agriculture uses 80-90% of available water. Recently, 31 of 50 states, plus the Virgin Islands and Puerto Rico, have reported concerns about groundwater contamination by pesticides; there are few data on the effects of pesticides on amphibians. Recent studies at the Klamath Basin National Wildlife Refuge showed that irrigation drainwater was either lethal to, or caused significant malformation of, developing frog embryos. The study concluded that poor water quality (elevated pH [8.0 to 10.4] and un-ionized ammonia) and/or pesticides may be contributing to the decline of indigenous frog populations. [14] [Solution: help chemical-dependent farmers adopt organic farming techniques; this means revising the institutional framework of agriculture, including loan policies of private and public lenders, as well as turning much of the Agricultural Extension Service on its head.]

11) Overharvesting of frogs for human food: The importance of frog legs as a food item in France has apparently been linked to a marked decline in native frogs in Europe, India, and Bangladesh. [15] The demand for frog legs in France is tremendous: the French eat 3,000 to 4,000 metric tons of them a year. Some 20,000 frogs must be sacrificed in order to supply a single metric ton of legs. [16]

12) Certain industrial chemicals can mimic the activity of naturally occurring hormones. Examination of birds, fish and reptiles indicates that these substances can have drastic consequences, such as a reduction in sperm count and the alteration of male genitalia. [17][Solution: Ban and phase out chlorine as an industrial feedstock. Adopt the principle of "reverse onus," which says that new chemicals shall be assumed dangerous until they are shown to be compatible with natural systems.] (See RHWN #378.)

At the most immediate, practical, monetary level, it makes no sense to ignore the decline and disappearance of species. From the perspective of humans, amphibians represent a storehouse of pharmaceutical products waiting to be tapped fully. Hundreds of chemical secretions have been isolated from amphibian skin, and scientists are just beginning to learn how valuable these substances may be. Some of these compounds are already used as painkillers and in treatment of victims of traumas ranging from burns to heart attacks. It is clearly in our own interests to stop the destruction of amphibians, and of all other creatures great and small. [18]

 --Peter Montague

===============

[1] Stuart Pimm, "Seeds of Our Own destruction," NEW SCIENTIST Vol. 146, No. 1972 (April 8, 1995), pgs. 31-35.

[2] E.O. Wilson, "The Current State of Biodiversity," in E.O. Wilson and Frances M. Peter, editors, BIODIVERSITY (Washington, D.C.: National Academy Press, 1988), pgs. 3-18.

[3] Andrew R. Blaustein and David B. Wake, "The Puzzle of Declining Amphibian Populations," SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN Vol. 272, No. 4 (April 1995), pgs. 52-57.

[4] Andrew R. Blaustein, "Chicken Little or Nero's Fiddle? A Perspective on Declining Amphibian Populations," HERPETOLOGICA Vol. 50, No. 1 (March 1994), pgs. 85-97.

[5] David B. Wake, "Declining Amphibian Populations," SCIENCE Vol. 253 (August 23, 1991), pg. 860.

[6] Andrew R. Blaustein and David B. Wake, "Declining Amphibian Populations: A Global Phenomenon," TREE Vol. 5, No. 7 (July 1990), pgs. 203-204.

[7] Pimm, cited above, pg. 35.

[8] Joseph H.K. Pechmann and others, "Declining Amphibian Populations: The Problem of Separating Human Impacts From Natural Fluctuations," SCIENCE Vol. 253 (August 23, 1991), pgs. 892-895.

[9] Blaustein and Wake, cited above in note 3.

[10] Robin Boyer and Christian E. Grue, "The Need for Water Quality Criteria for Frogs," ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH PERSPECTIVES Vol. 103, No. 4 (April 1995), pgs. 352-357.

[11] Blaustein and Wake, cited above in note 3, pg. 55, referring to Andrew R. Blaustein and others, "UV repair and resistance to solar UV-B in amphibian eggs: A link to population declines?" PROCEEDINGS OF THE NATIONAL ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Vol. 91 (March 1994), pgs. 1791-1795.

[12] Andrew R. Blaustein and others, "Pathogenic Fungus Contributes to Amphibian Losses in the Pacific Northwest," BIOLOGICAL CONSERVATION Vol. 67 (1994), pgs. 251-254.

[13] Boyer and Grue, cited above, pg. 353.

[14] Boyer and Grue, cited above, pg. 354.

[15] Blaustein and Wake, cited above in note 6, pg. 204.

[16] Blaustein and Wake, cited above in note 3, pg. 56.

[17] Blaustein and Wake, cited above in note 3, pg. 56.

[18] Blaustein and Wake, cited above in note 3, pg. 56.

Descriptor terms: species loss; habitat destruction; habitat fragmentation; endocrine disrupters; deforestation; clearcutting; frog legs; france; agriculture; pesticides; fertilizers; acid precipitation; immune system disorders; bacteria; fungi; fish; exotic species; ozone depletion; cfcs; hcfcs; methyl bromide; global climate change; atmosphere; ultraviolet light; hormones; reverse onus; water pollution; water quality criteria;

#462: Killing Science

=======================Electronic Edition========================
RACHEL'S ENVIRONMENT & HEALTH WEEKLY #462
---October 5, 1995---
News and resources for environmental justice.
==========
Environmental Research Foundation
P.O. Box 5036, Annapolis, MD 21403
Fax (410) 263-8944; Internet: erf@rachel.clark.net
==========
RACHEL-4CM = DIOXIN FOCUSED DIRECTORY Remote Access Chemical Hazards Electronic Library. Dioxinnz.com
========================Original Source========================

Last week Congress permanently closed down its scientific research arm, the Office of Technology Assessment (OTA). Although we did not agree with the recommendations of every report that OTA produced during its 23 years of policy analysis, we know that the death of OTA will be an immeasurably great loss to the nation's ability to get the facts straight. The so-called conservatives in this Congress claim to favor public policies based on "good science," yet they are hacking away the infrastructure of laboratories and institutes that, for decades, has done the nation's scientific work. Next on the chopping block is the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST, formerly the National Bureau of Standards), which designs standardized testing and measurement protocols that are relied upon by scientists and engineers throughout the world. This Congress is moving us steadily back toward the dark ages.

On the chopping block as we go to press is the university-based program of basic research within the National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences (NIEHS), part of the National Institutes of Health (NIH). The NIEHS Superfund Basic Research Program, now in its ninth year, provides funding to 17 programs at 60 universities and institutions around the country, studying the human health effects of hazardous chemicals in the environment, especially those found at leaking waste dumps.

Congress has already reduced the appropriation for this program, which makes up barely 1% of the Superfund toxic waste cleanup effort. But now the House Subcommittee on Commerce, Trade and Hazardous Materials, chaired by Rep. Michael Oxley of Ohio's 4th District, is refusing to reauthorize the program entirely, thus killing it dead. Mr. Oxley's position is that Superfund money should only be used for cleanup, not for any "extraneous" uses like determining how clean our cleanups need to be, and why. Like other so-called "conservatives" who claim they want policies based on "good science," Mr. Oxley reveals his true intentions as he prevents any "good science" from being funded and carried out.

Looking at some of last year's research highlights produced by the Superfund research program, one can appreciate Mr. Oxley's fear of what good science will reveal: [1]

** Researchers determined the dose-response relationship for benzene down to doses as low as those received by ordinary people. Millions of Americans are exposed to small amounts of benzene when, for example, they pump their own gasoline. These benzene experiments strongly suggest that a cancer risk from benzene is present even at very low doses. With millions of people exposed to benzene every day, it seems important to know that benzene really does cause cancer.

** Other investigations demonstrated for the first time in laboratory animals that benzene exposure, which has been associated with leukemia and aplastic anemia in humans and animals, is also mutagenic; that is, it causes inheritable genetic changes which can affect the next generation, the next after that, and so on.

** Researchers showed that several biological markers (subtle observable changes in a person) can be used to detect probable chromium exposure in humans living near places where chromium wastes have been dumped. Researchers studied Jersey City, N.J., and surrounding Hudson County where corporate polluters dumped chromium wastes on the ground for decades. Such research should make it easier to sue corporate polluters for exposure to toxics.

** Researchers developed a test to detect a single molecule of a cancer-associated chromosomal rearrangement in the presence of DNA from a million normal human cells. This work offers the possibility of very sensitive detection of the ability of chemicals to cause chromosomal rearrangements as an indicator of their cancer-causing potential.

** Researchers are studying the neurological and immune-system effects of drinking water containing mercury compounds. Early results indicate that even a small dose of methyl-mercury, such as 5 ppm [parts per million] in drinking water, impairs neurological, endocrine (hormone), and immune-system functions in animals. This corresponds to a daily consumption of 0.3 milligrams per kilogram (mg/kg) of body weight which is smaller than the "safe" dose of 0.48 mg/kg body weight indicated by the World Health Organization. In other words, mercury is even more dangerous than formerly believed.

** A large epidemiologic study examined the respiratory disease hazards of susceptible individuals living near toxic waste sites and industrial facilities. Analysis of interim data has provided important information on the association between asthma status (active or inactive) and exposure to irritants --active asthmatics have been found to suffer an adverse effect on lung function resulting from irritant chemical exposure (after adjustment for smoking). Asthma is increasing each year in the U.S. population, and annual production of toxic chemicals is increasing as well. Could these two trends be related? It would be important to know.

** Researchers demonstrated a high degree of correspondence between laboratory and field-test results of immune-system toxicity in dogs exposed to industrial PCBs [polychlorinated biphenyls]. Not only have these studies clarified effects of PCBs on the immune system, but they have sparked a number of spin-off studies involving the thyroid, lymphocyte (white blood cell) development, and brain function. These studies help clarify how PCBs affect behavior, physiology, and response to infectious disease, in addition to environmentally-induced threats such as cancer. Efforts to date have provided a key step in validating laboratory immune-system toxicity observations with field studies of animal health.

** In a study comparing effects of perinatal (near the time of birth) vs. adult exposure to PCBs, researchers have found that toxic effects on the brain occur in completely opposite ways. In adults, ortho-PCBs reduce brain dopamine levels while dioxin-like coplanar-PCBs have no such effect. (Dopamine is an important natural chemical in the brain.) However, following perinatal exposure, dioxin-like PCBs elevate brain dopamine concentrations and alter the behavior of exposed female offspring while ortho-PCBs reduce brain dopamine concentrations. Thus, PCB exposures have opposite effects, depending on the age at exposure and the type of PCBs to which the organism is exposed. These results suggest that PCBs may not only directly affect nerve function, but may also alter steroid hormone function during a baby's development.

** Some of the most interesting and important Superfund research involves the role of estrogens and estrogen-like chemicals that seem to interfere with the reproductive system of fish, birds, and mammals, probably including humans. Estrogens are female sex hormones.

A study of sea gulls on Santa Barbara Island, not far from Los Angeles, in 1977 revealed bizarre gull behavior: female gulls were pairing up and sharing nests. In 1981, bird toxicologist Michael Fry published a study showing that, by injecting a small amount of DDT into bird eggs, he could produce hermaphroditic male birds --that is, male birds with the sex organs of both a male and a female. Fry's work met with skepticism back in 1981, but in the subsequent decade wildlife experts worldwide reported declining birth rates, hermaphroditic offspring, lowered sperm counts, and deformities of the testicles of fish, panthers, alligators, and other animals in polluted habitats. [2]Timothy Gross, a wildlife endocrinologist (hormone specialist) at the University of Florida in Gainesville, says, "If you look at people, the same pollutants are in our bodies. What is a safe level? We don't know. But I'd be a pretty naive scientist to conclude there couldn't be the same effects in humans." [3]

The possible effects of estrogen-like chemicals on humans are now thought to include prostate cancer and testicular cancer [4]in men, and perhaps breast cancer in women. [5] Prostate cancer has been steadily increasing in the U.S. in recent years, especially among older men; it strikes 244,000 men each year in the U.S., and kills about 40,000. Breast cancer strikes 183,000 American women each year and kills about 46,240. One out of every 8 women gets breast cancer, and one out of every 7 men gets prostate cancer. Because men with undeveloped testes, and castrated men, rarely develop prostate cancer, researchers began to suspect that sex hormones circulating in the blood might affect prostate cancer. "The evidence has since been stacking up to form an alarming picture that paints estrogen [female sex hormone] and testosterone [male sex hormone] as cancer culprits," says a recent issue of ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH PERSPECTIVES, [4]published by the National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences [NIEHS], a staid scientific organization that does not use the word "alarming" lightly. Estrogens and estrogen-mimicking industrial chemicals in the environment have now been shown to alter testosterone levels in men. Thus the wildlife research supported by Superfund money has begun to pay off with a better understanding of major killer diseases. "We're relying on Superfund money for research," says wildlife-and-hormone specialist Timothy Gross at University of Florida. "And who knows what will happen to that? Congress now has a vendetta against lots of this environmental research," he says. [3]

Indeed, people calling themselves "conservatives" in Congress are determined to cut off the funding for this line of research. In their mind, the only good science is no science. Without federal funding, this research will cease because the private sector has no interest in showing how industrial discharges may be contributing to the nation's steadily-rising burden of cancer, diabetes, birth defects, endometriosis, and infertility.

Now a Congressman from Ohio is leading the charge to kill this important health research program. Mr. Oxley might change his mind if he received letters or phone calls from people in his district, who hold the power to end his political career. In addition, calls from outside his district might help, too. Mr. Oxley represents 11 counties (Allen, Auglaize, Crawford, Hancock, Hardin, Knox, Logan, Marion, Morrow, Richland and Wyandot), with the district's four most populous cities being Lima, Mansfield, Marion, and Findlay (Mr. Oxley's home town). His phone number in D.C. is: (202) 225-2676; fax: (202) 226-1160. Mail: 2233 Rayburn Building, Washington, D.C. 20515.

 --Peter Montague

===============

[1] Highlights of Superfund research can be found on the World Wide Web at http://www.niehs.nih.gov/sbrp/1994-hig.htm.

[2] Recent work on estrogen-like chemicals and wildlife appears in "Wildlife Development," ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH PERSPECTIVES Vol. 103, Supplement 4 (May, 1995).

[3] Gross quoted in Amanda Spake, "Is the modern world giving us cancer?" HEALTH (October, 1995), pg. 55.

[4] Renee Twombly, "Assault on the Male," ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH PERSPECTIVES Vol. 103, No. 9 (September, 1995), pgs. 802-805.

[5] Devra Lee Davis and H. Leon Bradlow, "Can Environmental Estrogens Cause Breast Cancer?" SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN Vol. 273, No. 4 (October, 1995), pgs. 166-172.

Descriptor terms: research funding; superfund; congress; science; ota; benzene; chromium; congressman michael oxley; cancer; mercury; asthma; hazardous wastes; pcbs; dogs; estrogens; hormones; immune system; nervous system; endocrine system; endocrine disruptors; wildlife; hermaphroditism; fish; gulls; birds; panthers; alligators; prostate cancer; testicular cancer; breast cancer; morbidity statistics; mortality statistics; testosterone; niehs

#246: Dismantling Our Life-Support Systems.

=======================Electronic Edition========================

RACHEL'S HAZARDOUS WASTE NEWS #246
---August 14, 1991---
News and resources for environmental justice.
------
Environmental Research Foundation
P.O. Box 5036, Annapolis, MD 21403
Fax (410) 263-8944; Internet: erf@igc.apc.org ==========
RACHEL-4CM = DIOXIN FOCUSED DIRECTORY Remote Access Chemical Hazards Electronic Library. Dioxinnz.com
========================Original Source========================

"The ozone layer, which protects living things from the Sun's harmful ultraviolet rays, has been depleted in many areas of the globe, and at the latitudes of the United States the loss is proceeding twice as fast as scientists had expected, the [U.S.] Environmental Protection Agency announced [in April].

"The agency said the declines measured in the late fall, winter, and early spring amounted to 4.5 to 5 percent in the last decade.

"'It is stunning information,' William K. Reilly, the agency's Administrator, said in an interview after the announcement in Washington. 'It is unexpected, it is disturbing....'

"According to agency calculations based on the new ozone findings, over the next 50 years about 12 million Americans will develop skin cancer, and more than 200,000 of them will die. Under previous assumptions, only 500,000 cancer cases and 9,300 fatalities were forecast....

"Scientists say that for every 1 percent decline in the high-altitude ozone shield, 2 percent more ultraviolet radiation reaches the earth's surface. Besides skin cancer, the harmful ultraviolet radiation can cause eye cataracts. Scientists say it can also affect the human immune system adversely, that it harms the ability of phytoplankton, tiny plants at the basis of the oceanic food chain, to reproduce; that it can damage some crops and wild plants." --NEW YORK TIMES April 5, 1991, pg. 1, D1.

Thus readers of the NEW YORK TIMES in April learned that ozone depletion is now proceeding rapidly in the atmosphere above the United States. For roughly 450 million years, the ozone shield--10 to 30 miles high in the sky--has protected the surface of planet Earth from ultraviolet radiation streaming in from the sun. 

Now chemicals called CFCs, released from refrigerators and air conditioners, are wafting upward, destroying the protective ozone in the stratosphere, allowing ultraviolet light levels to increase on the surface of the Earth. In sufficient quantities, ultraviolet light is a potent disinfectant, killing everything it strikes.

And so a problem that only three years ago seemed confined to an ozone "hole" over the ant arctic is now recognized as a world-wide calamity that will cause skin cancer in caucasians, will cause eye cataracts and immune system disorders in humans of all races, will interfere with the most fundamental underpinnings of oceanic food chains, and will disrupt wildlife reproduction in other ways that are poorly understood. Furthermore, the problem is developing twice as rapidly as scientists had predicted just last year, indicating that scientists--15 years after the National Academy of Sciences in Washington, DC, declared this a serious problem worthy of urgent attention--do not yet understand the problem sufficiently well to predict its course correctly. In this business of dismantling the life-support systems of the Earth, we are learning as we go.

Just this year, scientists seem to be reaching agreement that ozone loss is connected to another worldwide phenomenon that was first noticed in 1989. Scientists have reported simultaneous wildlife losses in places as far apart as California, Australia, Brazil, and Europe. It may sound silly at first, but amphibians--salamanders, toads, and frogs--are declining, disappearing, and becoming extinct at unprecedented rates world-wide. Increased ultraviolet light is now thought to be one important cause, though by no means the only one.

Dr. Henry Wake, a biologist from University of California at Berkeley chaired a panel of 20 experts for the National Research Council (Washington, DC) in early 1990. Dr. Wake compares the loss of frogs to the 19th-century coal miner's canary--when the canary died, it was a warning sign that the air in the mine had grown hazardous to humans. So with frogs, says Dr. Wake: "If frogs and salamanders are dying off in synchrony [at the same time], there's a message there for us," says Dr. Wake. (NY TIMES Feb. 20, 1990, pg. C4; SCIENCE NEWS Feb. 24, 1990, pg. 116, and March 3, 1990, pg. 142.)

The truth is, amphibians are rapidly disappearing from many ponds, rivers, mountains, and rain forests around the world, including places that are not very polluted. Dr. Wake says, "They are disappearing from nature preserves in the most pristine sites of Costa Rica, Brazil, Yosemite, Sequoia and Ile Royale National Parks [in the U.S.]. Meadows where frogs were as thick as flies are now silent," he says.

Individual scientists had been noticing the decline of frogs but it wasn't until 1989 that they compared notes at a global conference and discovered that reports of local losses were coming in from all over the world. Some scientists had refrained from reporting their observations of loss and extinction for fear that younger colleagues, or even children, would find live specimens of frogs reported extinct.

All the reasons for the decline of amphibians are not understood. In some cases, it's loss of habitat. Frogs that used to live in Japanese rice paddies now find golf courses instead. In the U.S., frogs return to ponds only to find condominiums. Stocking lakes and ponds with edible fish, particularly in the western U.S., wipes out frogs when fish eat their tadpoles.

But there's something going on besides direct human intervention. Dr. David Bradford of UCLA reports that in the 1970s he found ponds in the High Sierras containing more than 800 adult yellowlegged frogs and 1500 tadpoles. In 1990, he checked 38 lakes and found frogs in only one.

A leading cause of such declines may be acid rain and acid snow. The spring thaw brings a shock of acid water into mountain streams, killing sensitive creatures in the early stages of life.

Another source of problems is pesticides, including those that are banned for sale in the U.S. but which are still manufactured here and shipped overseas. Many of them, sprayed abroad, travel on the wind and rain down on U.S. soil; some see in this an ironic and fitting gift to us from the developing world, but for frogs and salamanders it represents apolitical destruction and death.

Amphibians are particularly sensitive to chemical pollution because they spend part of their life-cycle on land and part immersed in water; furthermore, they breathe through their skin. Toxic heavy metals and pesticides building up in aquatic food chains, plus a hefty dose of air pollution may be what's killing some frogs, toads, and salamanders.

The latest information is that many researchers now believe that increased ultraviolet radiation may be affecting frogs' eggs, which float on the surface of the water, absorbing sunlight. Too much ultraviolet light evidently interferes with the ability of egg cells to multiply.

What are Humans Doing About It?

The International Union for the Conservation of Nature (IUCN) has recently set up a "Task Force on Declining Amphibian Populations," located in Corvallis, Oregon. They are developing a worldwide network of scientists who will document the destruction of amphibians as the ominous global trend unfolds. (SCIENCE Aug. 2, 1991, p. 509.)

Back in Washington, President Bush has steadfastly refused to force an aggressive phase-out of ozone-depleting chemicals. Furthermore, Mr. Bush and Vice-President Quayle recently announced they are reversing U.S. policies established to protect wetlands. Under pressure from some of the nation's wealthiest lobbyists, the Home Builders Association, Mr. Bush will open millions of protected wetlands to development. (NY TIMES Aug. 3, 1991, pgs. 1, 25.)

For its part, DuPont, the company that invented, patented, and sold the CFCs that are bringing ruin to the Earth, has developed only one problem in recent years: managing all the money that is pouring in. As CFCs are slowly phased out, they become scarcer and their price is rising on the world market. Organizations dependent upon refrigeration are willing to pay the rising cost of CFCs to maintain their operations, and thus DuPont is reaping literally billions of new dollars each year in windfall profits. (NY TIMES April 21, 1988, pg. 2F.)

--Peter Montague, Ph.D.

Descriptor terms: ozone layer; global environmental problems; epa; reilly; studies; immune system; skin; cancers; eyes; oceans; food chain; habitat destruction; cfcs; nas; amphibians; wildlife; costa rica; brazil; yosemite; sequoia; ile royale; national parks; conferences; japan; rice paddies; heavy metals; air pollution; iucn; bush administration; wetlands; home builders association; dupont;